Footnotes

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• Footnote 1 - Unless noted otherwise, accounts of Frisian history are drawn primarily from Markey (1981) and, to a lesser degree, Robinson (1992) and Janzing (1999).

• Footnote 2 - Robinson (1992:181) suggests the possibility of earlier Frisian texts' being lost during the Viking incursions. There may also be some Frisian runic inscriptions, usually on coins, but these are not universally accepted as such. The inscription on the so-called Arum sword, found in a terp in Arum, to the South East of Harlingen, is "most certainly Frisian" (Markey 1988:52).

• Footnote 3 -Although many non-English speaking countries refer to "the Netherlands", examples of languages that prefer the alternative include French l'Holande / les Holandes, Hungarian Hollandia, Icelandic Holland, Polish Holandia, Japanese oranda, and Farsi /holænd/ (www.intertran.com, with translations for entry "The Netherlands", and personal knowledge).

• Footnote 4 - This occasionally leads to confusion: in the discussion of Dutch dialects, the term 'West Frisian' refers to this now-Frankish dialect, not a Frisian one (Donaldson 1983:13).

• Footnote 5 - This overview of the history of the Dutch language is based on Donaldson (1983), Robinson (1992), De Vooys (1952), De Vries et al. (1993), and Van der Wal (1992), who all give largely the same information. Where a point is drawn from one author in particular, or from an author not part of this group, a specific reference is given in the text.

• Footnote 6 - Van Coetsem's (1988) terms, generally paralleling Thomason and Kaufman's (1988), are respectively "Source Language Agentivity" and "Receiver Language Agentivity." Guy (1990) uses the terms "borrowing" and "imposition" in his paradigm, as well as "spontaneous" to refer to internally induced change.

• Footnote 7 - Van Dale (1989:872). The appendix, entitled "Registers", at the back of the book lists words borrowed into ABN by language of origin.

• Footnote 8 - Brachin (1985:7). Unless otherwise mentioned, all examples are from Markey (1988) and De Vries et al. (1993).

• Footnote 9 - My justification for including this word in this group is the concept of strapping down cargo in a ship's hold, or else tying up a boat to the dock, or possibly even pulling the boat along, in the fashion of the Volga boatmen, through canals, with a subsequent extension of meaning to pulling in general.

• Footnote 10 - As I have not heard of or seen anything that could be so described elsewhere in the Netherlands, and nor have any of my Dutch informants, I must assume this is particularly Frisian.

• Footnote 11 - Van Dale (1989:824) only traces this word back as far as Middle Dutch. Markey (1981:46) lists this as a Frisian loanword.

• Footnote 12 - The following data is based on Van Haeringen (1923) and Markey (1988), except when specified otherwise.

• Footnote 13 - These allophones were phonemicized only in Middle English, under the influence of French loan words which reflected and required the distinction (Thomason and Kaufman 1988:24).

• Footnote 14 - The appendix on 'Effects of Bilingualism on the Individual' lists many neutral or even positive conclusions, but also includes those concluding with such startling pronouncements as "bilingual persons may be morally depraved because they do not receive effective religious instruction in their mother-tongue in childhood" and "a particularly vicious kind of bilingualism has made the population of Upper Silesia inferior in its capacity to think and feel" (Weinreich 1953:119-120).

• Footnote 15 - This last is activated when "the bilingual code switches into the language with which less traumatic past experience... is associated" and may be the reason behind the lower "incidence of reactive schizophrenia in bilingual populations" (Dibold 1966:237, quoted in Titone 1991:441).

• Footnote 16 - Thomason and Kaufman quote Hall's conclusion that the Chinese who learned and used Chinese Pidgin English "refused to stoop to learning the foreigners' language in its full form" (Thomason & Kaufman 1988:173).

• Footnote 17 - For instance, Eric Hoekstra, of the Rijksuniversiteit Groningen, seems to be involved in research into substratum influence from Frisian into various Dutch dialects and ABN, based on the handout from an informal talk he gave last year and which a kind friend sent me (bedankt, Ron!).